Ratio Analysis for Building Company

Ratio Analysis for Building Comp each entitle Ratio analysis for Bellway CompanyAbout Bellway plcThe Bellway assemblage is one of the largest housebuilders in the U.K. It was established in 1946 by John T.Bells and his two sons1.The separates ope symmetryns ar spread throughout the country.The primeval activities of the convocation intromit land acquisition, finance, planning, architecture, design, build management, marketing and customer service. Bellway builds low- be homes and apartment blocks on disused or abandoned sites.Position and StrategyBellway sells around 6,000 houses all(prenominal) socio-economic class and has till date provided more(prenominal) than coke,000 homes.The houses atomic number 18 designed, built and marketed by local teams operate from regional offices. These offices are managed and staffed by local people. The go with employs about 2,000 people with varying expertise.Corporate Social ResponsibilityThe class has adopted five principles in the ir day-to-day opeproportionns to minimise the milieual effects of the building process and create sustainable communitiesProtection of the environmentPrudent use of natural resourcesCreating environments that have the potential to add to economic growth and employment opportunitiesSocial conside dimensionns that recognise the needs for a changing and advancing populationThe creation of communities that result endure and where people go away aspire to liveSource Bellway p.l.c. Annual narrative Accounts 2007The gathering reports on these five principles in its Annual announce.Performance Overview of Bellway multitudeThe housing perseverance has been facing challenging market conditions since the last few months. However the death chair of the Group has made the following statement in the Annual Report of the Group for the stratum stop 31 July 2007.Bellway has, yet again, produced a in truth good set of results for the year ended 31 July. The Group continues to have got organic growth in volumes and sugar despite the challenging market conditions experienced by the housing patience everywhere the last dozen months.The present paper attempts to examine the reality of the statement by doing a ratio analysis to assess the financial health of the Group ground on its Annual Reports for the year ended 31 July 2007.Performance OverviewThe key high lighters of performance in the year ended July 2007 over the previous year are presentn in the table2 infraIn the next office a detailed analysis of the financial performance and health of the Group has been examined on the basis ofPerformance RatiosWorking Capital Efficiency Ratios enthronization RatiosFinancial Status RatiosPERFORMANCE RATIOSReturn on capital employed (ROCE) avail before Tax and liaison Payable= x hundredTotal Assets sharp Current Liabilities* This is taken as equal to operating realize addition engross incomeThe ROCE of the Group is around 22% in the year ended 2007. Despite a 6.5% adjoin in the clams before Tax and sideline Payable in 2007, the ROCE stands at the similar figure as in 2006. This only indicates that the wage assets have in any case plusd in the same proportion as winnings. However, there has been no improvement in the efficiency in employing theses net assets to generate pay.Moreover, ROCE for the Group is lower than five year sightly ROCE achieved by builders over UK which stands at 2530%3. Thus, the efficiency in employing net assets to generate profits for the Group is lower than the industriousness mean(a).Asset employee turnovergross revenue employee turnover=Total Assets less Current LiabilitiesThe asset turnover ratio of 1.165 indicates that a sale of 1.165 is generated from to each one invested in assets by the Group. This ratio has increased by around 3.6% in 2007 over 2006 which is a good sign. The increase is earlier imputable to an increase in total assets and also a comparable increase in the sales turnover.Ne t profit brinkProfit before Tax and Interest Payable = x 100Sales turnover*This is taken as equal to operating profit plus evoke incomeDespite the increase in profit before interest and taxes and also sales turnover, there is a slight pedigree in the net profit margin from 19.5% in the year ended 2006 to 19.1% in the year ended 2007. The decline indicates that proportionate increase in cost of operations has been higher than the increase in sales. Thus, there has been a decline in the efficiency of sales to generate profits.Gross profit marginGross Profit= x 100Sales turnover in that respect has been a decrease in the gross profit margin of the Group by 0.6% despite the increase in sales revenue. The decline in the gross profit margin has been due to a larger increase in cost of sales as compared to corresponding increase in sales. Sales revenue has increased by 9.2% over 2006. The corresponding increase in cost of sales has been 9.9%. The decline in the gross profit margin also explains to certain extent the decline in net profit margin.WORKING CAPITAL EFFICIENCY RATIOSInventories (or stock) turnoverStocks and Work in Progress= x 365Purchases (or Cost of Sales)The housebuilding intentness by its very reputation has slow moving stock / inventory. In 2007, as compared to 2006, there has been a decline in the number of days the stock takes to be converted into sales. The stock is getting converted into sales in 538.65 days in 2007 as compared to 552.16 days. This is an improvement of around 2.4% over 2006. interchange receivables (or trade debtors) turnover make do Debtors= x 365Sales Turnover* All sales are assumed to be on creditThough it takes less than 1 week to collect receivables, the increase in the time taken to win payments from customers must be examined carefully before it gets out of hands. An increasing ratio also indicates that the company is taking more time for collecting its payments. Thus, each 1 of its sales revenue stays tied up in trad e receivables for a longer time period.Trade account payables (or trade creditors) turnoverTrade Creditors= x 365Cost of Sales** All purchases are assumed to be on creditThere has been a decline in the average settlement period for trade creditors by almost 17%. This is non a good sign as trade credit is a type of free finance available to a company. A declining ratio indicates that suppliers in the year ended 2007 gave a lower credit period to the Group as compared to the previous year. This becomes a bigger stick of line as the Stock Turnover ratio for the Group stands at a high figure. It may also have adverse implications for the Groups liquidity position.INVESTMENT RATIOSEarnings per share (EPS)Profit before indifferent Dividend =No. of Ordinary Shares in issueEPS reflects upon share performance. Thus EPS social movement of the Group highlights the investment potential of its shares. It also highlights the possibility that the company will pay a dividend8.There has been a 6.2% growth in the weaken EPS of the Group in the year ended 2007 as compared to 2006. This indicates that the potential of the shares of the Group is growing. This increase in EPS is primarily due to an increase in the profits with no corresponding increase in tax rates.Price earnings ratio(PE)Market Value per Share =Earning per shareIn general, if the PE ratio of a company is high it implies that investors are optimistic about the companys future and are expectinghigher earningsgrowthin the future compared to companies with alower PE. However, the ratio can only be interpreted appropriately when compared to historical PE ratio or industry benchmarks.Groups historical PE ratioThe PE ratio for the Group has been constant over the previous two years.The ratio needs to be examined in light of the deteriorating industry scenario over the last two months. The PE ratio calculated to a higher place may non hold true today and would have declined substantially. This is because housebu ilding is a cyclical business where earnings fall exponentially as sales termss decline. Recent times have seen a substantial decline in sale prices. If the PE is calculated at the share price of 713.5p9 as on 25 April 2008, assuming earnings to be constant at 31 July 2007 level, it will be only 4.9. Thus, actual PE will be lower.Industry averageThe following diagram10 highlights the PE ratios of 8 leading housebuilders in UK as on 21 July 2007.The diagram clearly indicates that Bellway is towards the lower end of the selected companies in the industry UK with regard to its PE ratioDividend yieldLatest Annual Dividends= x 100Current market share priceThe dividend yield at the up-to-date price as on 25 April 2008 = (43.125 / 713.5) %= 6%However, the market price of shares for the Group is a lot lower than it was a year ago.Historically, the dividend yield has been as indicated in the table belowDividend pass overProfit on familiar activities afterward taxation=Ordinary Dividend The dividend cover has fallen despite the position that the profits have increased. A declining trend makes dividend less secure. However it is non a cause of concern for the Group as the dividend cover is much better than many other companies in the industry. For example, housebuilder Persimmon has cover of 2.6911. Thus, if the Group has a cover of more than 3, it could maintain its payout more than thrice over.Return on equity (ROE)Profit on ordinary activities after taxation= x 100Equity shareholders fundsThe Group shows a decline in this ratio in 2007 over 2006. The decline may be primarily due to increase in equity shareholders funds. monetary STATUS RATIOSWorking capital ratio (WCR)Current Assets=Current liabilitiesThe real average for the WCR ratio is that present-day(prenominal) assets should be double the current liabilities. However, the norm varies with industry. In the case of the Group the ratio has declined but it is higher than the real norm. However, a closer a nalysis indicates that the Group faces a liquidity crisis. A close examination of the current assets indicates that inventories constitute more than 95% of the current assets. This, added to a high stock turnover ratio, will not let the Group meet its current obligations. A clearer picture of the liquidity is provided by the Quick Asset ratio.Quick assets ratio (QAR)Current Assets Stocks=Current liabilitiesThe norm for this ratio is 1 1. However, it again varies from business to business. The ratio is far below the norm. In other words, the Group has no way of covering up its current obligations. This is a cause of concern and can lead to excerpt problems also if the condition persists.GearingLong-term Debt + Preference Shares=Total Assets less Current Liabilities*These include preference shares of 20,000,000 in both the yearsThe wagon train or dependence on debt has decreased by about 7% for the Group. Thus, there has been a decline in the Groups luck as lesser amount is committ ed for periodic interest and quittance commitments. This is especially welcome in the time of deteriorating housing market conditions.Interest coverProfit before Tax and Interest Payable=Interest payableDespite the decline in gearing, the Groups interest cover for the year ended 31 July 2007 also shows a slight decline. The decrease in interest cover from last year is due to a higher increase in net interest payable than increase in profit before tax and interest.ConclusionTo desist it can be said that Bellway has performed well in the year ended July 2007 over 2006 in terms of profitability as well as increased sales. However, it faces a major short-term liquidity crisis. This is a cause of concern as the UKs housebuilding industry, in general, is expected to be facing more difficult times ahead due to credit crunch and declining consumer demand.ReferencesAtrill slam McLaney Eddie, Financial Accounting for Decision Makers, 5th ed. 2008 , FT Prentice dormitory roomBarker Review Interim Report, The Housebuilding Industry, accessed from http//www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/media/2/9/barkerreview_interim_chapters4to6.pdfBellway p.l.c. Annual Report Accounts 2007Elliott B. and J. Elliott, Financial Accounting and Reporting, 11th ed. 2007, FT Prentice HallHIFIC Barnard Report, afterlife Trends in character Construction and Implications for HIE Region, accessed from www.forestryscotland.com/pages/download2.asp?file=attachments/HIFIC_Forres%2007_Barnard.pdfSteed, Alison, Five base hit shares for hard times, The Sunday Times 20 April, 2008Team Limited, The Cartel- Like Industry, accessed from http//www.teamlimited.co.uk/Assets/pdf/Building-Barriers.pdf hayseed finance, accessed from http//finance.yahoo.com/q/pr?s=BWY.LHemscott website accessed from www.hemscott.comBrief 209439Page 1 of 131 Source http//finance.yahoo.com/q/pr?s=BWY.L2 Source Bellway p.l.c. Annual Report Accounts 20073 HIFIC Barnard Report, Future Trends in Timber Construction and Implications for HIE Region, accessed from www.forestryscotland.com/pages/download2.asp?file=attachments/HIFIC_Forres 07_Barnard.pdf4 Ideally average stock and spend a penny in progress figures should be taken for calculating the ratio as they give more accurate ratios as average inventory accounts for any seasonality effects on the ratio. However, in the case of house building industry seasonality effect is not there. Moreover due to non-availability of 2005 figures, end of the year figures are used. .5 Ideally average trade debtors figures should be taken for calculating the ratio as they give more accurate ratios. However, due to non-availability of 2005 figures, end of the year figures are used.. Trade receivables do not include other receivables not arising from sales (Refer Note 13 of Bellway Annual Report pp 68)6 Ideally average trade creditors figures should be taken for calculating the ratio as they give more accurate ratios. However, due to non-availability of 2005 figures, end of the year f igures are used. Trade payables do not include other payables not arising from purchases (Refer Note 15 of Bellway Annual Report pp 69)7 Diluted EPS is based on the total capital shares after all Options and awards have been exercised.8 EPS only indicates the possibility of a dividend. However, dividend end is a corporate decision and there is no rule of flicker regarding its size and frequency.9 http//finance.yahoo.com/q?s=BWY.L10 Based on PE ratios published on 21 July 2007 by www.hemscott.com11 Steed, Alison, The Sunday Times, 20 April 2008

Coliform Bacteria: Occurrence and Antibiotic Susceptibility

Coli wee Bacteria Occurrence and antibiotic SusceptibilityAbs footpathBacteriological taint of muscles and digestive nerve pathway limit of Oreochromis sp. and Labeo sp. reargond in a consortium supplied with interior(prenominal) sewage was enumerated followed by goal of bulwark of thermotolerent coli produces for antibiotics. Numbers of bacterium in muscles and digestive leaflet content of slant reflected their densities in water. Muscles of both the angle species look intoed gamey numbers of fit coliforms (TC) and faecal coliforms (FC). Escherichia Coli (E.coli) were never recovered from the muscles but from the digestive tract contents of the tilt. Ranking of the total and fecal coliform contamination levels showed a decrease in the order digestive tract contents muscles (pKeywords Domestic sewage Fish faecal coliforms Escherichia coli Water quality Antibacterial resistor Public health.Introduction t come in ensemble around the world, people both in rural and urban argonas bring in been using domestic wastes to fertilize lean ponds (Strauss et al. 2000). In the majority of cases, domestic sewages are applied un toughened or only partially treated through storage (Strauss 2000). Domestic sewer water, rich in nourishings, employ in aqua stopping point supports the growth of plankton and other microorganisms which are consumed by the search with little divine guidance of other supplemented feed. Recycling of domestic sewage through aquaculture is an effective form of pollution control, which contributes to equal recovery and provides a source of low cost animal protein production.Domestic sewage transports a variety of charitable pathogenic microorganisms which may contaminate slant flesh when fish is grown in ponds receiving waste water (Niewolak and Tucholski 2000). Besides, municipal effluent consists of huge amounts of incompletely metabolized antimicrobic drugs which can lead to the development of antibiotic repelling bac teria as well as broad plasmids (Wiggins et al. 1999). The prominently affected bacteria are members of enterobacteriaceae and related gram negative rods (Kelch and Lee 1978). One of the definitive concern of wastewater fisheries is the contamination of fishes by fecal coliforms (Fapohunda, MacMillan, Marshall and Waites 1994). Their comportment in fish intended for human consumption may bring into being a potential danger non only by cause disease but also because of the possible transfer of antibiotic fortress from aquatic bacteria to human-infecting bacteria from nonaquatic sources (Olayemi, Adedayo and Ojo 1991). Therefore, periodic and comprehensive sanitary go off of wastewater fishery is required. For years, the group of fecal (also called thermotolerant) coliforms (FC) has been the most widely used as fecal contamination as their excreted committal is similar or larger than that of pathogenic organisms, and their survival time in the surroundings prolonged than t hat of excreted bacteria and viruses (Strauss 1997).In the reach reflect, an attempt has been made to determine the bacteriologic contamination of muscles and digestive tract contents of Oreochromis sp. and Labeo sp. reared in wastewater provideeral official pond. Resistance to two very common antibiotics for random thermotolerent coliform isolates from muscle and digestive tract contents of both the fish was also determined.Materials and MethodsStudy situateA sewage fed pond of Bandipur, Rahara, North 24 Parganas, (2244N parallel and 8824E Longitude) was taken into consideration for this study and to examine bacterial load of water and fish. Raw sewage was entirely of domestic origin, coming from Tit agarh township of North 24 Parganas, West Bengal.Sampling and DissectionFish samples were caught with a meshing and were immediately transferred to the laboratory in containers with pond water. They were dissected according to Buras et al. 1987. Muscles and digestive tract conte nts were isolated and placed in sterile spyglass vessels. The tissues were weighed under sterile conditions, ground in a mortar and hang up in sodium chloride (NaCl) physiological solution (10 ml of the solution for several(prenominal)ly 1 g of the muscle or digestive tract content). The suspensions were homogenized using Universal Laboratory Aid Type MPW-309 homogenizer, at grounds rpm, for 10 minutes. The homogenates were then serially diluted (10-1 to 10-6 for muscles and 10-1 to 10-7 for digestive tract contents) and inoculated into culture media. Time lag from fish collection to the analyses did not exceed 6 hours. Water from sewage-supplied pond was sampled and analysed simultaneously with fish sampling. Samples were collected monthly from July 2009 to family line 2009.Microbiological Analyses meat ColiformsLauryl Tryptose (LT) Broth at 350C for 48 hr was used for three-tube most-probable-number (MPN) likely determinations of coliforms (APHA 1998). From all positive pre sumptive tubes, total coliforms were confirmed by the composition of gas in any amount in the Durham upheaval tubes of brilliant green lactose bile broth (BGLB) for 48 hr at 350C.Fecal Coliforms and E.coliAll positive Lauryl Tryptose (LT) MPN tubes to tubes of Escherichia coli (EC) Broth followed by incubation at 44.50C for 48 hr constitute a positive fecal coliform test. The growth from positive EC tubes was then streaked onto Levine Eosin methylene Blue (EMB) Agar plates and incubated at 35C for 18 to 24 h. Colonies from EMB Agar plates typical of E. coli were transferred to Nutrient agar (NA) slants from which GIMViC tests were performed where G-medium is the secondary EC broth, I -medium is Tryptone broth, M- and V-medium is Buffered Glucose broth, and C-medium is Simmons Citrate agar. MPN of E. coli was then computed based on the number of tubes found to contain isolates that produce GIMViC reaction patterns characteristic of E. coli (APHA 2001).Representatives of typical t hermotolerent coliform isolates from fish samples were selected randomly by colony morphology on Eosin methylene blue agar and were streaked aseptically several times on freshly prepared nutrient agar plates to obtain subtle isolates (Ogbonna, Sokari and Amaku 2008). Nutrient agar plates were then supplemented with ampicillin (50g ml-1) and tetracycline (25gml-1) and were used to evaluate antibiotic susceptibility patterns of 117 pure isolates (Miranda and Zemelman 2001). 32 isolates from muscles and 24 isolates from digestive tract contents of Oreochromis sp. and 39 strains from muscles and 22 isolates from digestive tract contents of Labeo sp. were subjected to antibiotics sensitivity test.Statistical AnalysesMeans and bill errors (SE) were calculated. T test was performed between bacterial concentration of muscles and digestive tract contents of both the fish. A significance level of 5% was considered (Zar 2007).Resultsbacterial loads in muscles and digestive tract contents of Oreochromis sp. and Labeo sp. were exceptionally high. Total coliforms and fecal coliforms were commonly found in all analysed fish tissues. Escherichia Coli were not found in the muscles of either fish. Additionally, however, thermotolerant Escherichia coli were present in the digestive tract contents of both the fish (Table 2). Bacterial loads in the fish were significantly higher (pAntibiotic tube patternOf the 117 thermotolerent coliform isolates examined for antibiotic sensitivity, 82% (96 isolates out of 117) were tetracycline resistant and 65% (76 isolates out of 117) were ampicillin resistant. 58.11% (68 isolates out of 117) of the total isolates were resistant to both antibiotics where as 31% (36 isolates out of 117) were resistant to single antibiotic. From the single antibiotic resistant isolates, 24% were tetracycline resistant and 7% were ampicillin resistant (Figure 1). 56.41% isolates (22 isolates out of 39) from flesh and 22.72% (5 isolates out of 22) from digestive tract contents of Labeo sp. showed resistance to both antibiotics whereas 71.87% isolates from flesh (23 isolates out of 32) and 75% (18 isolates out of 24) from digestive tract contents of Oreochromis sp. showed resistance to both ampicillin and tetracycline (Figure 2).DiscussionComparison of fecal coliform counts of water of Bandipur sewage fed fish pond with WHO (World Health Organization) water quality criteria (WHO 1989) suggests considerable contamination of the first. Bacterial phytology of fish reflects the bacteriological quality of the water from where the fish harvested (Geldrich and Clarke 1966). Strong correlation between the bacterial species present in the pond water and the fish regardless of the type of fish were also inform by Buras et al. 1987 Ogbondeminu 1993 Apun, Yusofand and Jugang 1999. Thus, in our study, total coliforms, fecal coliforms and E.coli recovered from muscles and digestive tract contents of Oreochromis sp. and Labeo sp. may reflect bacteriolog ical water quality of the Bandipur sewage fed pond.Fecal coliforms in fish muscles were recovered when values of FC in water were 3.86+3.63105 MPN deoxycytidine monophosphate ml-1 which were much higher than those recommended by WHO (1989) in its health guidelines on wastewater use in aquaculture. Fecal coliforms in fish reflect the level of pollution of their environment, as the normal floras of fish do not include coliforms (Cohen and Shuval 1973). Presence of fecal coliforms indicates the presence of fecal visible from warm-blooded animals. However, thermotolerent coliforms include the genera of fecal as well as non fecal origin. E. coli is a species of fecal coliform bacteria that is specific to fecal material from earthly concern and other warm-blooded animals (Bhatia 2008). Environmental Protection Agency (1992) thus recommends E. coli as the best fecal indicator of health risk from water. No noticeable penetration of E.coli in muscles of either fish was found at 1.34+0.95 104 MPN 100 ml-1 of E.coli concentration in water of sewage fed pond (Table 1). Thus, the fish flesh qualities at harvest were good on the basis of their E. coli counts. golosh precautions during fish processing are still needed to avoid cross-contamination callable to high accumulation of microorganisms in the digestive tract of fish.In this study significantly higher numbers of bacteria (pA wide send of thermotolerent coliforms isolated from sewage fed fish showed resistance to both ampicillin and tetracycline. Multiple anitibiotic resistant faecal coliforms have been observed in wastewater across the world (Gallert et al. 2005). Antibiotic resistance among random bacterial isolates from several(predicate) organs of fish captured from fecally contaminated water with a full hurl of resistance (00-100%) to different common antibiotics of therapeutic and prophylactic use among human beings and in various animal bring forths and fish farms was inform by several authors. (Rhodes et al. 2000 Miranda and Zemelman 2001 Pathak and Gopal 2005). Thus the source of the problem of antibiotic resistance bacteria in wastewater pond of Bandipur was fecally contaminated water.Among thermotolerent coliforms recovered from fish, resistance to ampicillin and tetracycline was found in 65% and 82% of the isolates, respectively. Occurrence of thermotolerent coliforms with high resistance to ampicillin and tetracycline reflect human influence in the environment (Andersen and Sandaa 1994). Domestic sewage enters into the pond environment of the sewage fed farm with huge antibiotics which are used as medicines, as growth promoters or as preventative maintenance and may have established a selective pressure due to a slow degradation of antimicrobials favouring pull ahead growth of antibiotic-resistant bacteria (Petersen and Dalsgaard 2003). It may possible that these antibiotic resistant bacteria from wastewater may transfer their antibiotic resistant determinants to indigenou s flora of fish, provoking their spread and prevalence in aquatic environment.In the present study bacteria resistant to both ampicillin and tetracycline from digestive tract contents were higher in Oreochromis sp. than in Labeo sp. It may be related to detritus feeding habit of Oreochromis sp. by which it is more assailable to wastes as well as antimicrobials than Labeo sp. which is a column feeder. Similar findings were reported by Miranda and Zemelman (2001) with demersal and pelagic fish. Antibiotic resistant fecal bacteria form domestic sewage may change nutritionally beneficial enteral microflora with unexpected consequences on fish health.Our study indicates that fish flesh qualities were fitting in terms of E.coli counts. In spite of that flesh of both fish showed high numbers of antibiotic resistant thermotolerent coliforms which may include Klebsiella spp., Citrobactor spp. and Enterobacter spp. (non fecal origin) but till have immense ecological and habitual health im plications specially if the resistance is plasmid mediated then there could be a problem associated with the transfer of resistance determinants to human pathogenic bacteria which may enter in human population through fish consumption. According to Walia et al. (2004) antibiotic resistance genes against ampicillin, streptomycin, and tetracycline are known to be transferable to other bacteria.Thus, we can say that Wastewaters and fishes reside there are potent source of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, which in turn may transfer their resistance genes to nonresistant bacteria (Schwartz et al. 2003). Several studies indicate that the environmental conditions in wastewater may enhance the likelihood of gene transfer (Pote et al. 2003). Mach and Grimes (1982) demonstrated the high transfer frequencies of enteric bacteria in a wastewater. Additionally resistant bacteria may pose a risk of therapeutic problems to public health and fish population. So the study demands an elaborate investiga tion on the members of predominant multidrug resistant bacterial microflora associated with sewage fed fishery along with their plasmids profile as an evidence of conjugal transfer of antibiotic resistance genes in human and animal food chain through fish consumption.

Evolution of Race in State Development

Evolution of stimulate in State Development essay critically the view that the idea of run away is remainderemic to the formation of the juvenile state.The critical exami land whiledated by the present head word requires an introductory pure tone concerning the appropriate rendering to be employed regarding the terms formation and racialism. make-up is suggested to be a less than ideal expression to describe the processes of upstart state study. In this sense the term evolution is preferred as the more accurate and organic experience of young state development. racialism is a more complicated term due to the variance surrounded by its dictionary meanings and etymology on one side, and its popular con nonations on the take apart. The meaning of racialism is both closely associated and intermingled with its near cousins culture and sociality. It is important to bear in mind as this examination is advanced that racialism may be considered as both a scientific term and as a catch all descriptor for all manner of conduct and attitudes that fosters the favouritism or antipathy of one person or group against an some other.This analyze will proceed on three translucent but link up lines of examination (1) how racialism should be conceptualised (2) the legal interpretation of racism as it has developed in the UK, the European Union and in other jurisdiction as a pluralistic societal initiative (3) examples of how racism has contributed to the development path taken by modern nations. Sports examples ar tendered as similes of how racism in modern culture remains a constant in the face of wide ranging legislative schemes aimed to eradicate it.The concept of racism racial discrimination has been explained by way of both scholarship and social perspectives through history. From a purely biological orientation, debate has raged as to whether there be distinct physiological differences amongst various peoples sufficient to permit a rational, science b ased differentiation between them DNA research and the genome projects confirm this quality exists to a slight degree in all fundamental homophile construction.1In modern times, where horse opera societies invite attempted to formulate a comprehensive definition of race, an overwhelmingly sporting / Caucasian identity is invoked as the societal norm, with others who are not a part of the white definition assert in the position as a racial other.2 Goldberg and other academic commentators have employed the contrasting analytical devices of racial immanentism, where race is accepted as an outgrowth of science, and racial historianism, the concept that shapes and defines race through legal enactment.3The historian view of race implicitly involves a consideration of racism as an evolving concept. Much academic commentary has considered racism in terms of outsiders, even where the existence subject to racial discussion was born within the nation. Paul Gilroy had considered a del ineate new racism in the UK in the late 1980s not to be solely linked to skin colour or other physiological differences between humans, but a logical extension of discourses of patriotism, nationalism, xenophobia, Englishness, Britishness, militarism and gender differences4 a sweeping rationale that represents the basis for national anti-racism legislation. It is submitted that Gilroys observation is much keener than the top executive of the law to counter the problem.racialism is rooted in the establishment of separate and conflicting identities within a society, where a people define themselves as the norm, and those different to them are automatically presumed to possess all opposite characteristics.5The Enlightment idea that was powered by the philosophies of Hobbes and Locke, among others, has also been the subject of significant criticism as the root cause of racism in modern state evolution. This come out centres upon the Enlightment era reverence for rationality, where the conclusion that there must be positions of natural superiority and inferiority between races was regarded as a scientific outcome. idiom upon enlightened and rational thought placed Europe and the supposed politeness its race in contrast with all primitive places.In contrast, other commentators have placed racism on a different diachronic footing. The leaders of the Enlightment did not articulate racial principles or a presumed white European superiority to a significant degree. 6 Malik places the historical progression of the racial definition as one of class distinctions, with racial divisions bearing a greater relation to economic status than physiology.7As nations were elevated in status throughout the nineteenth century, it is suggested that imperialism is an intrinsically racist concept the subjugation of another people, by relatively peaceful colonialism or starker military conquest, requires a national mindset of superiority.8The encoding of race has also been a cle ar evolutionary process. dismal (or worse) was a simple blunt force verbal description of the racial distinction between the Caribbean immigrants to the UK and Canada during the 1950s and 1960s in modern times, the code words of immigration and naturalisation carry a baneful but as powerful message.9Racism has evolved to both include and qualify popular concepts of culture and ethnicity. Whether one accepts race as a patrimonial based circumstance, or as a purely social invention, it understandably exists and prospers in western sandwich culture. In modern societies, racism has expanded dynamically as a concept to occupy the same ground as ethnicity, where separately has become interchangeable with the other as a doer of differentiation.Ethnicity occupies this common ground with racism because it relies upon racial principles in its definition. In each of the five circumstances enumerated as ethnicity generated in a society, namely the earthly concern of an urban visible min ority ethno national groups, such as the Kurds in Turkey distinct groups that exist in plural societies (e.g. Asian and Caribbean peoples who make out within the UK) indigenous minorities, such as North American or Scandinavian native peoples post-slavery minorities, such as Afro-brazil nutians. Each ethnic definition contains a racial thread.10For the purposes of the legal definition outlined be piteous, ethnicity and racism are afforded similar word.The legal definition of racism is at once acute and bluntly constructed. Legislated definitions, such as those contained in the UK flow Relations typify11 or the European principle of Human Rights12, are comprehensive in their scope. It is equally important to note that such definitions are often an after the event response to societal change, not a signpost for a nations future.The UK legislation enacted in 1976 was built upon the legacy of the Notting Hill riots and the righteous panic associated with black street crime in ur ban Britain of the early 1970s.13 It is impossible for modern states to enact laws that map a future treatment of racism, as ethnic boundaries are in a constants state of flux. Germanys uneasy kindred with its Muslim minority is generally cast in racial terms that incorporate the religious, pagan and linguistic differences of the migrant wear out attracted to the formed West Germany in the late 1970s.14Statutes that proclaim as a purpose the eradication of racism are a constant in modern pluralistic westerly nations. The lead Relations Act as interpreted by the House of Lords in Mandla15 determined that British Sikh people were a racial, as opposed to a religious or cultural group within the meaning of the Act race was defined by the Law Lords as a combination of a longsighted common history, a distinct cultural tradition, and any confluence of the factors of geography, language, literature, organized religion or the existence of the people within a larger community. The egr ess of Article 14, ECHR, combined with Protocol 12 of the Community and the UK Human Rights Act reinforces this definition.In this sense, the law dictates race. In 1982 the enshrined constitution of Canada elevated racial and cultural diversity to a fundamental national status.16The Australian constitution embraces a similar regime. These nations are highlighted here to illustrate the evolution in racial notions in these states, as both countries had previously engaged in efforts to suck up its aboriginal peoples into a mainstream white culture.17 Each country was overtaken by the acknowledgement that pluralism and multiculturalism were desirable societal goals, with pluralism used as its own code for racial / ethnic diversity. Declining birth rates throughout the Western world have created a dichotomy between the economic imperative to boost population and labour forces through immigration, and ethnic / racial attitudes.18It is suggested that simply legislating an end to such soc ietal strife will be un masteryful. Fitzpatricks Mythology of unexampled Law19 and the theories of H.L.A. Hart20 share an important explanatory principle as to why racism exists among peoples. Fitzpatricks myth basis to modern law and Harts concepts of pre-legal societies that are founded upon shared cultural traditions and observances each exclude those who are different.The relationship between racism and economic standing mentioned briefly above is also important in this context. It is contended that a wholesale economic re-ordering of the world nations would do more to achieve racial harmony than any legislation. The United States, Brazil and South Africa are prime examples of nations where modern racism and socio-economic status are indistinguishable. 21On one level, sport may seem an odd illustration of racism in the modern state. In the predominately white cultures of the UK, USA, and Canada, the black athlete is a well established figure, particularly in the professional arenas. It is submitted that the excretion of racism in sport has proved as illusory as with any other segment of society. Owusu detailed the contradictory aspects of race in UK athletics through the contention that black athletes are rewarded if they publicly comprehend the view that racism is non-existent in UK sport those athletes who express contrary opinions as to the fact of racism are characterised as paranoid or ungrateful.22 UK sprinter Linford Christie and bagger Frank Bruno are presented as the opposite ends of this argument each man is of Caribbean heritage who achieved success in athletic pursuits. Bruno never achieved the ultimate success in his sport, but maintained a steadfast image as a mainstream athlete, while Christie was outspoken throughout his career regarding the UK athletics establishment. . It was Christie who was cast as a disruptor of the normative codes for the UK black athlete.23There is little question that racism is endemic in the progression of th e development of all Western nations. The period that has followed World War II has been marked by ever-increasing advert between peoples of different national origin, cultures, traditions, and heritage. The black letter of the law is not necessarily a stimulus to changes in racial attitude, as the multi-faceted physiological, ethnic and economic creature cannot be eliminated by legislation alone.BibliographyBBC News gleam Immigration (June 16, 2006) http//news.bbc.co.uk/2/low/uk_news/england/5080924.stm (Accessed April 22, 2007)BBC News Coes racial ray of light (2001) http//news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/athletics/1171320.stm (Accessed April 22, 2007)BBC News History of UK race laws (December 13, 2005) http//news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/4510062.stm (Accessed April 22, 2007)Fitzpatrick, Peter (1992), The Mythology of Modern Law (New York Routledge)Guardian Since when did Seb Coe learn to cut talk? (2001) http//sport.guardian.co.uk/print/0,,5274602-108365,00.htmlGilroy, P. (1987) There Aint No Black in the Union Jack The Cultural Politics of Race and acres (capital of the United Kingdom Routledge)Goldberg, David Theo (1993) anti-Semite(a) grow (Oxford Blackwell)Goldberg, David Theo (2002) The Racial State (Oxford Blackwell)Hart, H.L.A. (1961) The Concepts of Law (Oxford Clarendon)Keita, L. (2002) The Problem of Race in the 21st Century The Western Journal of Black Studies 26 1, 55Malik, Kenan (1996) The Meaning of Race Race, History and Culture in Western Society (New York NYU Press)Miller, Mark J. Muslim Immigration to Europe (University of Delaware) http//www.udel.edu/poscir/mjmiller/MuslimImmigrationtoEurope (Minaret)-1.htm (Accessed April 22, 2007)Owusu, Kwesi (2000) Black British Culture and Society A Text reader (London Routledge)Riese, monotonous The biologic Meaning of Race (Spring 2005), University of California at Santa Cruz http//www.cbse.ucsc.edu/pdf_library/MeaningOfRace_Riese101005.pdf (Accessed April 21, 2007)Solomos, John and Martin Bulmer (20 04) Researching Race and Racism (New York Routledge) RoutledgeThomas, Cora (2001) Australian Aborigines to pureness Australians Australian Aboriginal Studies 1, 21Thompson, Kenneth (1998) chaste Panics London RoutledgeWerner F. Menski (2005) Immigration and multiculturalism in Britain New come to the fores in research and policy http//www.art.man.ac.uk/CASAS/pdfpapers/osakalecture.pdf (Accessed April 22, 2007) accede of CasesMandla v Dowell Lee 1983 2 AC 548Table of Statutes and ConventionsEuropean Convention on Human RightsRace Relations Act, 19761Footnotes1 See for example, Riese, Matt The Biological Meaning of Race(Spring 2005), University of California at Santa Cruz, 1, 32 Goldberg, David Theo (1993) Racist Culture3 Goldberg, (2002) The Racial State, 1434 Gilroy, Paul (1987) There Aint No Black in the Union Jack The Cultural Politics of Race and Nation, 415 Fitzpatrick, Peter (1992), The Mythology of Modern Law, 1016 Malik, Kenan (1996) The Meaning of Race, 547 ibid8 C.f. Kip lings ironic White Mans Burden (1899)9 Keita, L. (2002) The Problem of Race in the 21st Century The Western Journal of Black Studies 26 1, 5510 Werner F. Menski (2005) Immigration and multiculturalism in Britain New issues in research and policy, 1, 1011 Race Relations Act, 1976 (and as amended, 2001)12 Article 1413 See Thompson, Kenneth (1998) Moral Panics London Routledge14 Miller, Mark J. Muslim Immigration to Europe University of Delaware http//www.udel.edu/poscir/mjmiller/MuslimImmigrationtoEurope(Minaret)-1.htm (Accessed April 22, 2007)15 Mandla v Dowell Lee 1983 2 AC 548141516 Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, s.7, 1517 E.g. Curry, Bill and Karen Haslett, (2007) Residential schools Globe and Mail (Toronto) (April 24, 2007, p A14) Thomas, Cora (2001) Australian Aborigines to White Australians Australian Aboriginal Studies 1, 2118 A recent ethnic issue that makes this point in the UK is BBC News Polish Immigration (June 16, 2006) http//news.bbc.co.uk/2/low/uk_news/englan d/5080924.stm19 (1992)20(1961) The Concepts of Law21Keita, L. (2002) The Problem of Race in the 21st Century The Western Journal of Black Studies 26 1, 5522 Owusu, Kwesi (2000) Black British Culture and Society A Text reader (London Routledge), 923 ibid

Packet-Hiding Method for Preventing Selective Jamming Attack

Packet- secrecy Method for Preventing Selective Jamming Attack scheme The open nature of the radio intercourse medium leaves it vulnerable to intentional encumbrance attacks, typically referred to as pack. This intentional interference with wireless transmittances bottom be used as a launchpad for mounting Denial-of-Service attacks on wireless networks. Typically, jamming has been addressed downstairs an external threat model. However, adversaries with internal familiarity of protocol specifications and network secludeds can launch low-effort jamming attacks that are thorny to detect and prognosticate. In this work, we address the problem of discriminating jamming attacks in wireless networks. In these attacks, the resister is active only for a short period of time, selectively targeting messages of high importance. We illustrate the advantages of selective jamming in terms of network performance degradation and adversary effort by presenting two case studies a selective attack on transmission control protocol and one on routing.We show that selective jamming attacks can be launched by performing real-time portion boat mixture at the corporeal floor. To mitigate these attacks, we develop three schemes that prevent real-time packet classification by combining cryptographic primitives with physical- degree attributes. We analyze the security of our methods and evaluate their calculational and communication everyplacehead.Algorithm1. Symmetric encoding algorithm2. Brute effect attacks against farce encryption algorithmsAlgorithm DescriptionWe propose a solving ground on All-Or- Nothing Transformations (AONT) that introduces a modest communication and computation overhead. Such transformations were originally proposed by Rivest to slow down brute violence attacks against block encryption algorithms . An AONT serves as a publicly known and on the whole invertible pre-processing step to a plaintext before it is passed to an ordinary block e ncryption algorithm.ArchitectureExisting System Jamming attacks are much harder to counter and more security problems. They have been shown to actualize severe Denial-of-Service (DoS) attacks against wireless networks. In the simplest form of jamming, the adversary interferes with the reception of messages by transmitting a uninterrupted jamming call for , or several short jamming pulses jamming attacks have been analyzeed under an external threat model, in which the jammer is not branch of the network. Under this model, jamming strategies include the continuous or random transmission of highpower interference signalsProposed System In this paper, we address the problem of jamming under an internal threat model. We consider a sophisticated adversary who is aware(predicate) of network secrets and the accomplishation details of network protocols at any layer in the network stack. The adversary exploits his internal experience for launching selective jamming attacks in which spe cific messages of high importance are targeted. For example, a jammer can target roadway-request/route-reply messages at the routing layer to prevent route discovery, or target TCP acknowledgments in a TCP session to gravely degrade the throughput of an end-to-end flowTo launch selective jamming attacks, the adversary must(prenominal) be capable of implementing a classify-then-jam strategy before the expiration of a wireless transmission. Such strategy can be actualized both by classifying transmitted packets using protocol semantics, or by deciphermentpackets on the fly. In the latter method, the jammer may decode the first a few(prenominal) bits of a packet for recovering useful packet identifiers such(prenominal) as packet type, source and destination address. After classification, the adversary must urinate a sufficient number of bit errors so that the packet cannot be recovered at the receiver 34. Selective jamming requires an intimate knowledge of the physical (PHY) l ayer, as well as of the specifics of upper layersmodules-1. Network mental faculty2. Real Time Packet Classification 3. Selective Jamming module 4. Strong Hiding Commitment system of rules (SHCS)5. cryptologic Puzzle Hiding Scheme (CPHS)Module DescriptionsNetwork module-We address the problem of preventing the jamming boss from classifying m in real time, thus mitigating Js ability to perform selective jamming.The network consists of a collection of nodes connected via wireless links. Nodes may turn over directly if they are within communication range, or indirectly via multiple hops. Nodes communicate both in unicast mode and broadcast mode. Communications can be either unencrypted or encrypted. For encrypted broadcast communications, symmetric keys are divided up among all intended receivers. These keys are established using preshared pairwise keys or noninterchangeable cryptography.Real Time Packet ClassificationConsider the generic communication system depicted in Fig. At the PHY layer, a packet m is encoded, interleaved, and modulated before it is transmitted over the wireless channel. At the receiver, the signal is demodulated, deinterleaved, and decoded, to recover the original packet m.Moreover, even if the encryption key of a hide scheme were to sojourn secret, the smooth portions of a transmitted packet could potentially lead to packet classification. This is because for computationally-efficient encryption methods such as block encryption, the encryption of a prefix plaintext with the same key yields a inactive ciphertext prefix. Hence, an adversary who is aware of the underlying protocol specifics (structure of the frame) can use the static ciphertext portions of a transmitted packet to classify it.3. Selective Jamming ModuleWe illustrate the impact of selective jamming attacks on the network performance. implement selective jamming attacks in two multi-hop wireless network scenarios. In the first scenario, the attacker targeted a TCP con nection established over a multi-hop wireless route. In the second scenario, the jammer targeted network-layer control messages transmitted during the route establishment processselective jamming would be the encryption of transmitted packets (including headers) with a static key. However, for broadcast communications, this static decryption key must be known to all intended receivers and hence, is susceptible to compromise. An adversary in possession of the decryption key can start decrypting as other(a) as the reception of the first ciphertext block.4. Strong Hiding Commitment Scheme (SHCS)We propose a strong privateness commitment scheme (SHCS), which is based on symmetric cryptography. Our main motivation is to satisfy the strong hiding property while keeping the computation and communication overhead to a minimum.The computation overhead of SHCS is one symmetric encryption at the transmitter and one symmetric decryption at the receiver. Because the headerinformation is perm uted as a trailer and encrypted, all receivers in the vicinity of a sender must receive the entire packet and decrypt it, before the packet type and destination can be determined. However, in wireless protocols such as 802.11, the complete packet is received at the MAC layer before it is decided if the packet must be discarded or be further processed . If some parts of the MAC header are deemed not to be useful information to the jammer, they can remain unencrypted in the header of the packet, thus avoiding the decryption operation at the receiver.5. Cryptographic Puzzle Hiding Scheme (CPHS)we present a packet hiding scheme based on cryptographic puzzles. The main idea dirty dog such puzzles is to force the recipient of a puzzle execute a pre-defined set of computations before he is able to extract a secret of interest. The time required for obtaining the solution of a puzzle depends on its hardness and the computational ability of the solver. The advantage of the puzzlebased sche me is that its security does not deposit on the PHY layer parameters. However, it has higher computation and communication overheadWe consider several puzzle schemes as the basis for CPHS. For each scheme, we analyze the murder details which impact security and performance. Cryptographic puzzles are primitives originally suggested by Merkle as a method for establishing a secret over an unassured channel. They find a wide range of applications from preventing DoS attacks to providing broadcast stylemark and key escrow schemesSystem RequirementsHardware RequirementsSystem Pentium IV 2.4 GHz.Hard plough 40 GB.Floppy Drive 1.44 Mb.Monitor 15 VGA Colour.Mouse Logitech. read/write memory 256 Mb.Software RequirementsOperating system - Windows XP ProfessionalFront End - JAVA, Swing(JFC),RMI shit Eclipse 3.3